The Effects of Performing and Observing Actions Depend on Learners’ Prior Knowledge

What is it about?

Embodied learning activities—such as gesture, movement, and hands-on manipulation—are increasingly used to help students learn abstract concepts. Yet we still know little about when students should physically perform these actions themselves versus learn by observing others. We propose the Performing First Hypothesis: students with lower prior knowledge benefit more from performing actions because physically performing the activities creates the sensorimotor foundation for understanding abstract ideas. Students with higher prior knowledge, however, may benefit more from observing actions because they can use observation to make connections and transfer ideas more flexibly. We tested this hypothesis in a 10-week college introductory statistics course. In paired activities, one student physically performed hands-on tasks while the other observed. Across exams and weekly assessments, students with lower prior knowledge learned more from performing, whereas students with higher prior knowledge learned more from observing.

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Photo by Firmbee.com on Unsplash

Photo by Firmbee.com on Unsplash

Why is it important?

Theoretically, the study helps clarify when and for whom embodied pedagogies support learning, moving the field beyond the broad claim that action enhances cognition. Practically, it gives instructors a more precise way to design hands-on activities. Students with less prior knowledge may need to physically perform actions first to build a concrete foundation for abstract concepts, whereas students with more prior knowledge may benefit from observing actions in ways that support reflection, connection-making, and transfer. By identifying prior knowledge as a key moderator, this work shows that embodied learning is not one-size-fits-all. It points toward a more adaptive approach to instruction—one that uses embodied activities strategically rather than assuming that more activity is always better. This is especially important in higher education, where students often enter the same classroom with widely different levels of preparation.

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