Recovery and recycling of lithium: A review

What is it about?

Projected demands for lithium as LIB for the plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV), electric (EV) and hybrid electric (HEV) vehicle in the recent future is huge and estimated to reach $221 billion by 2024. Currently, 35% of global lithium production being used for LIBs and consumption for estimated LIB demand could be 66% (out of global lithium production) by 2025. During last five (2011-2015) years, global lithium production is almost constant. At present, up to 3% of LIBs are recycled with the only focus of valuable metal recovery, but motivation on lithium recovery almost nonexistence. The global rate of lithium recycling is only < 1%. Considering the current global lithium production with respect to projected demand, environment and regulation, green energy and energy security, cradle-to-cradle technology management and circular economy of critical metal and minimization of waste crime and maximization of the urban mining, recovery and recycling status of lithium should be well understood. In this review recovery of lithium from various resources such as different ores, clay, brine, seawater and recycling of battery by different technique are reviewed. Lithium recovery from various primary resources and its separation purification by different routes such as hydrometallurgy, pyro-metallurgy, chemical metallurgy, and bioleaching are discussed. Lithium recovery through chemical leaching, bioleaching, and floatation of different ores also thoroughly reviewed. The extraction of lithium from seawater by co-precipitation and extraction, ion-exchange and sorption by using various organic, inorganic and composite polymer sorbents has been discussed thoroughly. Although, several industries recovering lithium from primary resources, but lithium recovery from secondary resources almost non-existence. The non-existence of lithium recovery process from LIB or techno-economically inefficient process is a greater challenge for the projected lithium demand. As the cradle-to-grave technology is a sustainability challenge, cradle-to-cradle technology management could be achieved through efficient recycling. Hence, techno-economically feasible, environment-friendly and sustainable process needs to be developed and recommended. Considering technological advantages of hydrometallurgy process like; smaller scale, minimal energy investment, minimal CO2 emission, and the plant can be designed based on available waste, lithium recovery by hydrometallurgy should be focused.

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Why is it important?

Along with per capita energy consumption from battery resources, the requirement of lithium in various industries, like; glass industry, electronic and electrical industry and pharmaceutical industry increases rapidly. Projected demands for lithium as LIB for the vehicles is huge, estimated to consume 66% lithium metal by 2025 of total lithium produced currently and global market size for LIB for vehicles will be $221 billion by 2024. Currently, only 3% of waste LIB being recycled and rate of lithium recycling is only < 1%. Taking future lithium demand for LIBs into account under the most optimistic circumstances of supply could hardly meet the demand after 2023[114]. The future supply crisis only can be prevented through 100% LIB recycling with minimum 90% lithium recovery[114] or by the techno-economical, environment-friendly, and efficient recovery of lithium from low-grade primary resources. To meet lithium requirement, it is essential to find the alternative for efficient recovery of lithium from low-grade primary and secondary resources such as from ores, clays, brine, seawater and scrap LIB. In comparison to low-grade primary resources, recycling of LIB should be preferable as it eliminates several processes (beneficiation and recovery process from primary resources to Li salt/metals) and could be easily available through urban mining. Also, in the favor of the clean environment, to support environmental regulation and urban mining, address the lithium metal economy and green energy security, it is also essential to recover the metal values from the waste LIBs. Several industries recovering lithium from primary resources, but lithium recovery from secondary resources almost non-existence. The non-existence of lithium recovery process from LIB or techno-economically inefficient process is a greater challenge for the projected lithium supply crisis, needs attention for development of techno-economically efficient processes. Technology for industrial recovery of lithium from LIBs should be focused and an essential requirement for the environment and regulation, green energy, and energy security, cradle-to-cradle technology management and circular economy of lithium, minimization of waste crime and maximization of the urban mining recovery, and to keep the green energy policy on track. In above discussion each of the reported research paper has its own potentiality to support the environment and the economy as well as for extraction, separation, purification and recycling of lithium. Whence, the process involved in lithium recovery all over the world are limited and needs proportionately development to meet the lithium requirement at present and future. Literature investigation shows that to recover high pure Li2CO3 for pharmaceutical interest also very limited, in contrast, which is considered to be very important. Need for development of efficient and feasible technology for pure lithium recovery from low-lithium bearing sources recommended and secondary resources like LIBs is also recommended. The urgency for the alternative recycling technologies/processes to recover the lithium in particular from LIB needs an attention to avert the projected crisis in the near future. As the Cradle-to-Grave technology is a sustainability challenge, Cradle-to-Cradle technology management could be achieved through efficient recycling. Recovery of lithium through recycling from LIB can be an alternative feasible option to meet future demand (turn away the supply chain crisis if any existed), sustainability of energy, environment, and circular economy. Techno-economically feasible, environment-friendly and sustainable process needs to be developed and recommended. Since pyrometallurgical processes are techno-economically feasible mostly under mega scale which requires a high volume of investment simultaneously an environmental challenge and requires higher energy, the pyro process hardly can be an option to recover values. Considering technological advantages of hydrometallurgy like; smaller scale, minimal energy investment, minimal CO2 emission and the plant can be designed based on available waste, lithium recovery by hydrometallurgy should be focused.

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