All Stories

  1. Revealing the light-regulated circadian rhythm in the vector mosquitoes, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus
  2. Mutant allele formation and inheritance during Cas9/guide RNA-mediated gene drive in a population modification mosquito strain for human malaria control
  3. Vision guides the twilight search for oviposition sites of the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus
  4. Cas9/guide RNA-based gene-drive dynamics following introduction and introgression into diverse anopheline mosquito genetic backgrounds
  5. The odorant‐binding protein genes obp67 and obp56d‐like encode products that guide oviposition site selection in the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus
  6. Publisher Correction: Considerations for first field trials of low-threshold gene drive for malaria vector control
  7. Considerations for first field trials of low-threshold gene drive for malaria vector control
  8. miR‐2940‐1 is involved in the circadian regulation of oviposition in Aedes albopictus
  9. Conceptual risk assessment of mosquito population modification gene-drive systems to control malaria transmission: preliminary hazards list workshops
  10. Generating and Validating Transgenic Mosquitoes with Transposon-Mediated Transgenesis
  11. Mosquito Transposon-Mediated Transgenesis
  12. The dynamics of deltamethrin resistance evolution in Aedes albopictus has an impact on fitness and dengue virus type-2 vectorial capacity
  13. Engineering a complex, multiple enzyme-mediated synthesis of natural plant pigments in the silkworm, Bombyx mori
  14. Dual effector population modification gene-drive strains of the African malaria mosquitoes, Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii
  15. A DBHS family member regulates male determination in the filariasis vector Armigeres subalbatus
  16. Transgene-induced cell death following dengue-2 virus infection in Aedes aegypti
  17. Targeting plasmodium α-tubulin-1 to block malaria transmission to mosquitoes
  18. CRISPR mediated transactivation in the human disease vector Aedes aegypti
  19. Use of Insect Promoters in Genetic Engineering to Control Mosquito-Borne Diseases
  20. Clock genes regulate mating activity rhythms in the vector mosquitoes, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus
  21. Population Modification Using Gene Drive for Reduction of Malaria Transmission
  22. Development and evaluation of an efficient and real-time monitoring system for the vector mosquitoes, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus
  23. CRISPR Mediated Transactivation in the Human Disease Vector Aedes aegypti
  24. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated F1534S substitution in the voltage-gated sodium channel reveals its necessity and sufficiency for deltamethrin resistance in Aedes albopictus
  25. The AalNix3&4 isoform is required and sufficient to convert Aedes albopictus females into males
  26. Author Correction: Hidden genomic features of an invasive malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi, revealed by a chromosome-level genome assembly
  27. Interspecific mating bias may drive Aedes albopictus displacement of Aedes aegypti during its range expansion
  28. Cas9-mediated maternal effect and derived resistance alleles in a gene-drive strain of the African malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae
  29. Beyond the eye: Kynurenine pathway impairment causes midgut homeostasis dysfunction and survival and reproductive costs in blood-feeding mosquitoes
  30. Ethical Considerations for Gene Drive: Challenges of Balancing Inclusion, Power and Perspectives
  31. High-resolution in situ analysis of Cas9 germline transcript distributions in gene-drive Anopheles mosquitoes
  32. Oxitec and MosquitoMate in the United States: lessons for the future of gene drive mosquito control
  33. Microinjection Method for Anopheles gambiae Embryos
  34. Digital-Droplet PCR to Detect Indels Mutations in Genetically Modified Anopheline Mosquito Populations
  35. Population modification strategies for malaria vector control are uniquely resilient to observed levels of gene drive resistance alleles
  36. Small-Cage Laboratory Trials of Genetically-Engineered Anopheline Mosquitoes
  37. Hidden genomic features of an invasive malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi, revealed by a chromosome-level genome assembly
  38. Site-Directed φC31-Mediated Integration and Cassette Exchange in Anopheles Vectors of Malaria
  39. Application of the Relationship-Based Model to Engagement for Field Trials of Genetically Engineered Malaria Vectors
  40. Efficient population modification gene-drive rescue system in the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi
  41. The Lethal(2)-Essential-for-Life [L(2)EFL] Gene Family Modulates Dengue Virus Infection in Aedes aegypti
  42. Gene drive in a malaria mosquito.
  43. Efficient population modification gene-drive rescue system in the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi
  44. Translating gene drive science to promote linguistic diversity in community and stakeholder engagement
  45. Hidden genomic features of an invasive malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi
  46. Corrigendum
  47. Digital droplet PCR and IDAA for the detection of CRISPR indel edits in the malaria species Anopheles stephensi
  48. Cas9-Mediated Gene-Editing in the Malaria Mosquito Anopheles stephensi by ReMOT Control
  49. Mutation of the seminal protease gene, serine protease 2, results in male sterility in diverse lepidopterans
  50. Experimental population modification of the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  51. Cas9-mediated gene-editing in the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi by ReMOT Control
  52. Fall webworm genomes yield insights into rapid adaptation of invasive species
  53. Selection and Utility of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Markers to Reveal Fine-Scale Population Structure in Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum
  54. Silkworm genetic sexing through W chromosome-linked, targeted gene integration
  55. The redox-sensing gene Nrf2 affects intestinal homeostasis, insecticide resistance, and Zika virus susceptibility in the mosquito Aedes aegypti
  56. Bombyx mori histone methyltransferase BmAsh2 is essential for silkworm piRNA-mediated sex determination
  57. Synthetic miRNAs induce dual arboviral-resistance phenotypes in the vector mosquito Aedes aegypti
  58. Population modification of Anopheline species to control malaria transmission
  59. Rules of the road for insect gene drive research and testing
  60. nanos-Driven expression of piggyBac transposase induces mobilization of a synthetic autonomous transposon in the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  61. Lys48 ubiquitination during the intraerythrocytic cycle of the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium chabaudi
  62. Transgenic Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat/Cas9-Mediated Viral Gene Targeting for Antiviral Therapy of Bombyx mori Nucleopolyhedrovirus
  63. Bombyx mori P-element Somatic Inhibitor (BmPSI) Is a Key Auxiliary Factor for Silkworm Male Sex Determination
  64. Sexually dimorphic traits in the silkworm, Bombyx mori, are regulated by doublesex
  65. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated knockout of the abdominal-A homeotic gene in the global pest, diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella)
  66. Functional analysis of Orco and odorant receptors in odor recognition in Aedes albopictus
  67. Suppressor of hairy‐wing, modifier of mdg4 and centrosomal protein of 190 gene orthologues of the gypsy insulator complex in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  68. Endogenously-expressed NH2-terminus of circumsporozoite protein interferes with sporozoite invasion of mosquito salivary glands
  69. Mosquito salivary allergen Aed a 3: cloning, comprehensive molecular analysis, and clinical evaluation
  70. Correction for Chen et al., Genome sequence of the Asian Tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus , reveals insights into its biology, genetics, and evolution
  71. Impact of Genetic Modification of Vector Populations on the Malaria Eradication Agenda
  72. rAed a 4: A New 67-kDa Aedes aegypti Mosquito Salivary Allergen for the Diagnosis of Mosquito Allergy
  73. Highly efficient Cas9-mediated gene drive for population modification of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi
  74. Genome sequence of the Asian Tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus , reveals insights into its biology, genetics, and evolution
  75. Protein phosphorylation during Plasmodium berghei gametogenesis
  76. Safeguarding gene drive experiments in the laboratory
  77. MiR-2 family targetsawdandfngto regulate wing morphogenesis inBombyx mori
  78. Maternal Germline-Specific Genes in the Asian Malaria Mosquito Anopheles stephensi: Characterization and Application for Disease Control
  79. Molecular epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria among Duffy-positive and Duffy-negative populations in Ethiopia
  80. Site-specific, TALENs-mediated transformation of Bombyx mori
  81. Genome analysis of a major urban malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  82. Transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN)-mediated female-specific sterility in the silkworm, Bombyx mori
  83. Transcriptome Sequencing and Developmental Regulation of Gene Expression in Anopheles aquasalis
  84. piRNA pathway gene expression in the malaria vector mosquito A nopheles stephensi
  85. Fitness Impact and Stability of a Transgene Conferring Resistance to Dengue-2 Virus following Introgression into a Genetically Diverse Aedes aegypti Strain
  86. Collagen-binding protein, Aegyptin, regulates probing time and blood feeding success in the dengue vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  87. Criteria for Identifying and Evaluating Candidate Sites for Open-Field Trials of Genetically Engineered Mosquitoes
  88. A Regulatory Structure for Working with Genetically Modified Mosquitoes: Lessons from Mexico
  89. Integrated proteomic and transcriptomic analysis of the Aedes aegypti eggshell
  90. Genome-block expression-assisted association studies discover malaria resistance genes in Anopheles gambiae
  91. Expression and accumulation of the two-domain odorant-binding protein AaegOBP45 in the ovaries of blood-fed Aedes aegypti
  92. The invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus: current knowledge and future perspectives
  93. Gene Expression-Based Biomarkers for Anopheles gambiae Age Grading
  94. Molecular and Functional Characterization of Odorant-Binding Protein Genes in an Invasive Vector Mosquito, Aedes albopictus
  95. miRNA Genes of an Invasive Vector Mosquito, Aedes albopictus
  96. orco mutant mosquitoes lose strong preference for humans and are not repelled by volatile DEET
  97. Exogenous gypsy insulator sequences modulate transgene expression in the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  98. Strongyloidiasis: An Emerging Infectious Disease in China
  99. Field Cage Studies and Progressive Evaluation of Genetically-Engineered Mosquitoes
  100. Probing functional polymorphisms in the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti
  101. Development of a population suppression strain of the human malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles stephensi
  102. Complex Modulation of the Aedes aegypti Transcriptome in Response to Dengue Virus Infection
  103. Hybridization in situ of Salivary Glands, Ovaries, and Embryos of Vector Mosquitoes
  104. Transgenic Anopheles stephensi coexpressing single-chain antibodies resist Plasmodium falciparum development
  105. Strain Variation in the Transcriptome of the Dengue Fever Vector, Aedes aegypti
  106. Mosquito Trials
  107. Why RIDL is not SIT
  108. Comparison of transgene expression in Aedes aegypti generated by mariner Mos1 transposition and ΦC31 site-directed recombination
  109. Safety of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes
  110. Engineered Resistance to Plasmodium falciparum Development in Transgenic Anopheles stephensi
  111. A role for endosomal proteins in alphavirus dissemination in mosquitoes
  112. Genetic elimination of dengue vector mosquitoes
  113. RNA-seq analyses of blood-induced changes in gene expression in the mosquito vector species, Aedes aegypti
  114. Genetics-Based Field Studies Prioritize Safety
  115. A Research Agenda for Malaria Eradication: Vector Control
  116. Spatial mapping of gene expression in the salivary glands of the dengue vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  117. Genome-Wide Patterns of Gene Expression during Aging in the African Malaria Vector Anopheles gambiae
  118. Correction for Fu et al., Female-specific flightless phenotype for mosquito control
  119. aeGEPUCI: a database of gene expression in the dengue vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  120. Proteomics reveals novel components of the Anopheles gambiae eggshell
  121. Dengue Fever in Mainland China
  122. Transgene-mediated suppression of dengue viruses in the salivary glands of the yellow fever mosquito,Aedes aegypti
  123. Towards a framework for community engagement in global health research
  124. Complete mtDNA genomes of Anopheles darlingi and an approach to anopheline divergence time
  125. Comparative fitness assessment ofAnopheles stephensitransgenic lines receptive to site-specific integration
  126. Reframing Critical Needs in Vector Biology and Management of Vector-Borne Disease
  127. Female-specific flightless phenotype for mosquito control
  128. Vector-Borne Diseases in the 21st Century: Counting Up or Counting Down?
  129. Characterization of immunoglobulin G antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite surface antigen MB2 in malaria exposed individuals
  130. Stability and loss of a virus resistance phenotype over time in transgenic mosquitoes harbouring an antiviral effector gene
  131. From Tucson to Genomics and Transgenics: The Vector Biology Network and the Emergence of Modern Vector Biology
  132. Comparative genomics allows the discovery of cis -regulatory elements in mosquitoes
  133. Interview with Anthony A. James, Ph.D.
  134. Molecular Genetic Manipulation of Vector Mosquitoes
  135. Gene structure and expression ofnanos(nos) andoskar(osk) orthologues of the vector mosquito,Culex quinquefasciatus
  136. Guidance for Contained Field Trials of Vector Mosquitoes Engineered to Contain a Gene Drive System: Recommendations of a Scientific Working Group
  137. Genetic engineering of malaria parasite resistance in vector mosquitoes
  138. 16S rRNA Gene Sequences from Bacteria Associated with Adult Anopheles darlingi (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquitoes
  139. Gene Expression Studies in Mosquitoes
  140. 16S rRNA Gene Sequences from Bacteria Associated with Adult Anopheles darlingi (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquitoes
  141. Dissection of Midgut and Salivary Glands from Ae. aegypti Mosquitoes
  142. Injection of An. stephensi Embryos to Generate Malaria-resistant Mosquitoes
  143. Injection of dsRNA into Female A. aegypti Mosquitos
  144. Microinjection of A. aegypti Embryos to Obtain Transgenic Mosquitoes
  145. Preventing the Spread of Malaria and Dengue Fever Using Genetically Modified Mosquitoes
  146. nanos gene control DNA mediates developmentally regulated transposition in the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti
  147. GENETIC CONTROL OF MALARIA PARASITE TRANSMISSION: THRESHOLD LEVELS FOR INFECTION IN AN AVIAN MODEL SYSTEM
  148. THE ANOPHELES GAMBIAE VITELLOGENIN GENE (VGT2) PROMOTER DIRECTS PERSISTENT ACCUMULATION OF A REPORTER GENE PRODUCT IN TRANSGENIC ANOPHELES STEPHENSI FOLLOWING MULTIPLE BLOODMEALS
  149. Biochemical mechanisms leading to tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase activation
  150. Abstracts of the Fifth International Symposium on Molecular Insect Science
  151. Editorial
  152. Functional characterization of the promoter of the vitellogenin gene, AsVg1, of the malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi
  153. A ubiquitous Plasmodium protein displays a unique surface labeling pattern in sporozoites☆
  154. oskar gene expression in the vector mosquitoes, Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti
  155. A transcriptome analysis of the Aedes aegypti vitellogenic fat body
  156. angaGEDUCI: Anopheles gambiae gene expression database with integrated comparative algorithms for identifying conserved DNA motifs in promoter sequences
  157. Structure and expression of the lipophorin-encoding gene of the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae
  158. A new recombinant mosquito salivary allergen, rAed a 2: allergenicity, clinical relevance, and cross-reactivity
  159. Engineering RNA interference-based resistance to dengue virus type 2 in genetically modified Aedes aegypti
  160. Bridging the gaps in vector biology
  161. Genome-wide analysis of gene expression in adult Anopheles gambiae
  162. Expression of functional recombinant mosquito salivary apyrase: A potential therapeutic platelet aggregation inhibitor
  163. Changes to Insect Molecular Biology Editorial Board
  164. Characterization of the c-type lysozyme gene family in Anopheles gambiae
  165. THE NOVEL PLASMODIUM GALLINACEUM SPOROZOITE PROTEIN, PG93, IS PREFERENTIALLY EXPRESSED IN THE NUCLEUS OF OOCYST SPOROZOITES
  166. Microarray analysis of genes showing variable expression following a blood meal in Anopheles gambiae
  167. Nanos (nos) genes of the vector mosquitoes, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti
  168. Suitable material for publication in Insect Molecular Biology
  169. Gene drive systems in mosquitoes: rules of the road
  170. OnlineEarly Announcement
  171. The accumulation of specific mRNAs following multiple blood meals in Anopheles gambiae
  172. Microarray analysis for identification of Plasmodium-refractoriness candidate genes in mosquitoes
  173. Formation and loss of large, unstable tandem arrays of the piggyBac transposable element in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  174. The AeAct-4 gene is expressed in the developing flight muscles of female Aedes aegypti
  175. Using RNA interference to develop dengue virus resistance in genetically modified Aedes aegypti
  176. Identification and characterization of gp65, a salivary-gland-specific molecule expressed in the malaria vector Anopheles albimanus
  177. The transcriptome of adult female Anopheles darlingi salivary glands
  178. Primary characterization and basal promoter activity of two hexamerin genes of Musca domestica
  179. High efficiency, site-specific excision of a marker gene by the phage P1 cre-loxP system in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  180. Blocking malaria parasite invasion of mosquito salivary glands
  181. Gene vector and transposable element behavior in mosquitoes
  182. Analysis of the wild-type and mutant genes encoding the enzyme kynurenine monooxygenase of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  183. Engineering Plasmodium-refractory phenotypes in mosquitoes
  184. The Musca domestica larval hexamerin is composed of multiple, similar polypeptides
  185. The major salivary gland antigens of Culex quinquefasciatus are D7-related proteins
  186. The major acid soluble proteins of adult female Anopheles darlingi salivary glands include a member of the D7-related family of proteins
  187. Malaria Control with Genetically Manipulated Insect Vectors
  188. Engineering mosquito resistance to malaria parasites: the avian malaria model
  189. Development and applications of transgenesis in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  190. Germline Transformants Spreading Out to Many Insect Species
  191. Expression, purification, characterization and clinical relevance of rAed a 1—a 68-kDa recombinant mosquito Aedes aegypti salivary allergen
  192. Stage-dependent Localization of a Novel Gene Product of the Malaria Parasite,Plasmodium falciparum
  193. Present and Future Control of Malaria
  194. What's that Buzz?
  195. Purified mariner (Mos1) transposase catalyzes the integration of marked elements into the germ-line of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  196. Robust gut-specific gene expression in transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes
  197. Engineering blood meal-activated systemic immunity in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  198. Plasmodium falciparum: Generation of a cDNA Library Enriched in Sporozoite-Specific Transcripts by Directional Tag Subtractive Hybridization
  199. Insect Transgenesis
  200. Expression patterns of the larval and adult hexamerin genes of Musca domestica
  201. Virus-expressed, recombinant single-chain antibody blocks sporozoite infection of salivary glands in Plasmodium gallinaceum-infected Aedes aegypti.
  202. Genetics of Mosquito Vector Competence
  203. Structure of Hermes integrations in the germline of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  204. Inhibition of luciferase expression in transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes by Sindbis virus expression of antisense luciferase RNA
  205. Characterization of the Sialokinin I gene encoding the salivary vasodilator of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  206. Oxidation of 3-hydroxykynurenine to produce xanthommatin for eye pigmentation: a major branch pathway of tryptophan catabolism during pupal development in the Yellow Fever Mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  207. Trapping cDNAs encoding secreted proteins from the salivary glands of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae
  208. Editorial
  209. Promoter-directed expression of recombinant fire-fly luciferase in the salivary glands of Hermes-transformed Aedes aegypti
  210. A lysozyme in the salivary glands of the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi
  211. Isolation and Characterization of the Gene Encoding a Novel Factor Xa-directed Anticoagulant from the Yellow Fever Mosquito,Aedes aegypti
  212. Plasmodium falciparum:Ribosomal P2 Protein Gene Expression Is Independent of the Developmentally Regulated rRNAs
  213. Mariner transposition and transformation of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  214. Stable transformation of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti , with the Hermes element from the housefly
  215. Differential Gene Expression in Insects: Transcriptional Control
  216. Evidence for two distinct members of the amylase gene family in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  217. The white gene from the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  218. Transposition of the Hermes element in embryos of the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  219. The nonvitellogenic female protein of Musca domestica is an adult‐specific hexamerin
  220. Anticoagulants in vector arthropods
  221. Salivary Gland Anticoagulants in Culicine and Anopheline Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)
  222. Taking chances
  223. Pantropic retroviral vectors integrate and express in cells of the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae.
  224. Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
  225. Functional analysis of a mosquito γ-aminobutyric acid receptor gene promoter
  226. A Factor Xa-Directed Anticoagulant from the Salivary Glands of the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti
  227. The Apyrase Gene of the Vector Mosquito, Aedes eegypti, Is Expressed Specifically in the Adult Female Salivary Glands
  228. Characterization of a salivary gland-specific esterase in the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  229. Transient Expression of a Promoter-Reporter Construct in Differentiated Adult Salivary Glands and Embryos of the Mosquito Aedes Aegypti
  230. The salivary gland-specific apyrase of the mosquito Aedes aegypti is a member of the 5'-nucleotidase family.
  231. A glutathione S-transferase gene of the vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae
  232. Codon preference ofAedes aegyptiandAedes albopictus
  233. The salivary glands of the vector mosquito,Aedes aegypti, express a novel member of the amylase gene family
  234. Editorial
  235. Mosquito molecular genetics: the hands that feed bite back
  236. Isolation and characterization of the gene expressing the major salivary gland protein of the female mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  237. FLP-mediated recombination in the vector mosquite,Aedes aegypti
  238. Mosquito salivary glands: Parasitological and molecular aspects
  239. An α-glucosidase in the salivary glands of the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  240. Diet and salivation in female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes
  241. Biotechnology as applied to vectors and vector control
  242. Protein synthesis induced by heat in an Ixodes tick
  243. A salivary gland-specific, maltase-like gene of the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti
  244. The spatial distribution of a blastoderm stage-specific mRNA from the serendipity locus of Drosophila melanogaster
  245. Embryonic expression of the period clock gene in the central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster.
  246. Isolation of genetic elements that increase frequencies of plasmid recombinants
  247. Genetic recombination of bacterial plasmid DNA
  248. recA-independent general genetic recombination of plasmids
  249. A Quantitative Study of Cell Death and Mitotic Inhibition in γ-Irradiated Imaginal Wing Discs of Drosophila melanogaster
  250. Mutations causing pattern deficiencies and duplications in the imaginal wing disk of Drosophila melanogaster
  251. Regulative interactions between cells from different imaginal disks of Drosophila melanogaster
  252. Production of Stage-Specific Plasmodium falciparum cDNA Libraries Using Subtractive Hybridization
  253. Evaluation of drive mechanisms (including transgenes and drivers) in different environmental conditions and genetic backgrounds
  254. Genetic approaches in Aedes aegypti for control of dengue:
  255. What are relevant assays for refractoriness?